Social media advertising on airline industries Article

Social media advertising on airline industries - Article Example These sites are not only used by youngsters, but businessmen/women, housewives, and even retired people use them to get connected with their friends, share their thoughts with the world and find entertainment as well. The most popular sites Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and LinkedIn generate heavy traffic from all kinds of people around the globe. All these sites although have different purposes but are easily used by advertisers to advertise brands in a cost-effective and more interactive way. Social Networks Advertising (SNA) is a very distinct form of advertising. There can ads that are pushed to the consumers, and some that the consumers pull towards themselves. There are some advertisements that require the companies to pay to the social networking sites, whereas there are some that are for free (e.g. Fan pages, twitter profile etc.) There are some that are merely adaptation of the print media (e.g. Banner ads) whereas others are unique for the social media (e.g. fan pages, micro blogging etc) In the beginning only FMCGs or Restaurants marketed themselves on the social media. But now even if you are a service company or you belong to an automobile industry, or you have a small business, you need to have your brand’s social media presence. This research paper will see how social media is used in the airline industry. Most of the great airlines have a social media presence and are engaging with their customers through these interactive mediums. However there are still some airlines where they consider social media as â€Å"just a silly fad† as mentioned in the article â€Å"All that twitters† by Madhu Unnikrishnan & Robert Wall. The article gives the example of JetBlue airline which has 1.4 million followers on Twitter. The company focuses on listening to what customers say and solving their customer service issues with the help of twitter. Many social media analysts say that even if the brand is not online, it will still be discussed there by the

Classic airline and marketing solution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Classic airline and marketing solution - Essay Example Moreover the management is not able to come to a consensus to resolve the problems. In order to overcome the hazards, this company needs to figure out strategies and plans. Identifying challenges The first step in order to resolve issues is to identify the challenges. One of the main problems faced by this airline is reduction in airline stocks. There is lack of unity among the employees and this has lead to low morale. One of the main problems is that the Chief Financial Officer and Chief Executive Officer of this airline focuses less on marketing and at the same time wants more consumers to use this airlines. Around 20% of the members have stopped using the Classic Reward Frequent Flyer Program. This program is one such programme which recognises the efforts of frequent flyers by allowing them to redeem free tickets on miles. However one of the alarming statistics is that the average number of flights per member has declined to more than 20%. This translates to the fact that Classic Airlines is slowing losing its loyal customers. One of the major challenges which is being faced by all departments is that this company is 15% reduction in costs over the next 18 months. Perspectives of stakeholders and ethical dilemmas The major problems which Classic Airlines is facing are dissatisfied customers, low moral and unity among workers and competition from rival airlines. In order to get this organization back to track urgent strategic decisions need to be formulated with special attention to efficiency, innovation, efficacy and customer service. Classic Airlines expects to provide better quality services at the same airfare and this means that the marketing department needs to extensively and aggressively market the product to attract more customers. Framing the problem Classic airlines must focus on all aspects to ensure that they have better growth and profitability. To achieve this, the organization must be able to forecast market potential and future demand. This can be attained by focusing on long – term marketing goals which can help to reduce challenges. Classic airline must employ internal marketing strategies so that the internal customers are satisfied and work together as a team. Inte rnal marketing suggests that in order to be successful an organization must also emphasise on its internal customers or employees. Service organisations must ensure that the employees have the skill, attitude and commitment needed to meet up with growing customer demands and also sustain loyal customers. In internal marketing employee development is done through training, communication, recruitment, management, coaching and leadership. The company must understand the four elements of services; namely inconsistency, intangibility, inseparability and inventory. These are also known as the four I’s of the services. When discussing the marketing mix of the services the four P’s are important. In order to pursue major marketing goals in the target market, the marketing mix which consists of product, price, promotion and place must be used. The Classic Airlines should offer its customers, competitive prices, invest more on promoting products, improve the quality of the produ cts, enhance the CRM system, and implement new and innovating marketing plans and strategies. The above

Emotions of a woman on the birth of a child Essay

Emotions of a woman on the birth of a child - Essay Example I didn’t like the frog-looking thing that the ultra-sound revealed, nor the pumpkin that my mother said was inside me, nor the stork stories of Hans Christian Andersen fairytales. I imagined instead that I had swallowed the moon and that it was growing and expanding, filling me with incredible light. First, it was a period of darkness when I couldn’t feel her at all, then a sickle-shaped crescent moon, then a big round full moon that made me waddle in the days, and toss and turn at nights, and crave Kentucky Fried Chicken at midnight and be repulsed by it when I got it.But now the white-hot light that shafted through me was not the gentle glow that I’d felt for the past three months, but a tearing searing volcanic eruption of a life force that needed at all costs to be brought forth. I felt like a mountain that was being split asunder by a force greater than me, and I thought that I would die from the six-hour ordeal, like Rachel in the Bible story when she gave birth to Benjamin. But no, finally she released me from my woman’s curse of bearing children in pain (from eating the aching attractive but forbidden fruit). There was a sweltering silence, and in my groggy post-natal haze I heard a sharp short slap, then a wild wail that I couldn’t believe was human.When they put her in my arms I was spellbound. It was impossible that this was her: the moon-thing from my belly, the volcano that erupted from me, the werewolf that wailed at being brought into the world.... I stared at her in amazement. I didn't have enough eyes to look at her, her skin like Starbucks mocha that would eventually "brown" like Grandma's chocolate cake to look more like mine. I didn't have enough lips to kiss her soft skin that dented under my touch like a downy pillow. Not enough nostrils to inhale her smell -- so strange yet sweet -- a smell of new life. Nor enough hands to touch her incredibly smooth warm skin, to fight with her to unfold her tiny balls of hands that wound around anything it could catch. Seeing her for the first time was more beautiful than Shakespeare's "russet-clad" sunset, more thrilling than my first kiss. And there were many firsts that have dotted this past year like the occasional caramel-coated nut in an already delicious Nestle Drumstick cone: the first time she opened her eyes and revealed her dark brown eyes that she had sneakily kept hidden like an opal; her first smile, like a burst of sunlight peeping out from under a shadowy mountain; her first tear that terrified me and made me want to rip apart the invisible beast that hurt her like an enrage mother lion; the first time she held my hand and a shot of love ran from my womb, up my spine and through my heart. I am still looking forward to her first words, and hope they will be "Ma-ma", which will be like Beethoven's Fifth Symphony to my ears (strange but magnificently beautiful), and not to mention her first steps on chubby drumstick-like legs (I ate too much KFC when I was pregnant), her first cut knee, her first day of school, her first crush Looking at her now, a little brown leprechaun from my own body, with her impish toothless grin, her lovable moon face and scraggly weed-like hair that I don't know how I will ever comb, I'm

Aging out of the adoption system in Massachusetts Research Paper

Aging out of the adoption system in Massachusetts - Research Paper Example Aging out of the Adoption System in Massachusetts In 2009 approximately 423,773 children nationwide were in the foster care system of that number some were adopted, but for others that remained in the system the experiences of their adolescence are times to be quickly forgotten and put far into the past Annually, approximately 24,000 children age out of the foster system that number excludes those that run away and those reunited with family members. In most states foster care stipulations do not provide assistance once a child has his or her 18th birthday This paper will list some of the past and current child welfare policies enacted in the United States that are actively providing assistance to states to alleviate the problems that youth aging out of the foster care system are encountering. Additionally, highlighting the State of Massachusetts discussing the innovative and creative methods state administrators are developing to provide substantial assistance to children transition ing from foster care to independence (Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 2011). The final talks will provide an analysis of the effectiveness of the programs and policies, reviewing the current trends, and proposals states are offering as possible ways to make the transition from foster care to adulthood smoother and less problematic. Aging Out Emancipated or â€Å"aged out† are terms for children in the foster care system that have reached their 18th birthday and are no longer eligible for services under the foster care auspice. The information about what happens to children after aging out of the foster care system consistently recite the plight of homelessness, unemployment, criminal activity, uneducated, unplanned parenthood, and other conditions appearing chronic for youth aging out of the system (Gardner, 2008; Leigh, et al, 2007; Keller, 2007). Whereas the problems facing youth aging out of the foster care system is systemic with some areas o experiencing a set of differen t problems, each state is responsible for establishing and managing their individual state’s issues. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Resources and the Social Security Administration are the primary federal agencies providing funding to states that develop and administer programs addressing the issues pertaining to the welfare of children (U. S. Department of Health & Human Resources, 2011). In 2009 roughly 29, 471 children were emancipated, 6% or 16,323-16 year olds; 6% or 17,514-17 year olds; and 10% or 26,416 were 18 years of age (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2011). Children in foster care typically do not have any relationships with former family members such as grandparents, uncles and aunts. Because of the multiple placements in the foster care system children infrequently establish any consistent relationship other than with social service workers, therefore the transition from care to adulthood or self-sufficiency is not only emotional ly traumatic but one in which the future looks bleak and lonely Because of the instability in the foster system and the multiple foster placements many children do not meet the minimum educational standards as a result with many failing to graduate from high school (Shin, 2009). The Chafee Education and Training Vouchers Program (ETV) provide $5,000 annually per child and enables states to provide GED certification for former foster children that did not complete high school. This program addresses the problem of foster youth not having the educational aptitude and ability to become self-sufficient and with the proper mentoring encourage youth to pursue secondary education. In 2009 through Congressional allocations of over 60 million dollars were set aside for states to use for educating foster alumni (U.S.

Importance of Historical Perspectives Essay Example for Free

Importance of Historical Perspectives Essay The organised use of labour or Management as we now call it, is as old as time. However it was only in the 19th century that management and the idea of management thought emerged as an important element of political, economic and social development. I believe that historical perspectives have been critically important to the development of management thought through the centuries. Management ideas have been developed out of social and cultural circumstances, over time the social and cultural circumstances have radically changed and developed but the principle of management and management thought has been slow in keeping up with these developments. From my reading, I would argue that there have been three main phases that have fundamentally shaped management thought since ancient times. These phases are; the early autocratic management approach, the change in management thought following the reformation and thirdly, the new work practices required to support the industrial revolution. From my research, it is evident that major historical events have also had an important role to play in the development of different management styles and structures. In ancient times, management of people was purely autocratic. Many of the work force in these times were slaves. This early practise of management seen in ancient Egypt, continued through to feudal times. It was very effective in supporting some of the great construction projects which ancient Egypt is famous for, such as the building of the pyramids, the irrigation of the Nile and the building of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings. Similarly in ancient China, the building of the Great Wall of China. These great works provide us with evidence of a very organised and autocratic approach to the use of labour and also project management skills . This early autocratic period of management was heavily dominated by cultural values such as; fear of punishment, fear of god, where people had no sense of individual achievement and they could only look forward to a better life after death. This form of management continued through the middle ages and in these non-industrialised circumstances there was no â€Å"no need to develop a formal body of management thought†(Wren Bedeian, 2011: 37) As long as society was dominated by fear and oppression this form of management was sustained. As long as Christianity and the divine right of kings maintained their hold on society, management thought could not evolve and develop. However, these feudal times where religion was invincible and demanded total subservience ere coming to an end. The crusades were a major catalyst for change in these times and by weakening the strength of the catholic church they were the beginning of a cultural rebirth which led to the protestant reformation. With the reformation came the protestant work ethic which I would argue has transcended the history of management and has fundamentally changed work practises opening the door to completely different and new management styles and structures. Prior to this commerce was viewed as an evil that corrupted peoples’ minds and the idea of trade could undermine the obedience demanded by the catholic church. Max Weber in â€Å"the protestant ethic and spirit of capitalism† urges strongly that the spirit of capitalism grew out of Protestantism and the protestant work ethic. (Wren Bedeian, 2011: 26) It is clear that the transformation in attitudes in society due to the reformation brought with it the need for new management structures which would support creativity and competitiveness. These changes did not happen quickly, but they were pivotal in the fundamental shift to the organisation of labour being managed by many people and many different types of people rather than the autocratic few. These new managers began to think about personal gain and had to consider the best ways to achieve these gains. The shift to personal gain was accompanied by the strengthening of national economies in Europe and further afield as new countries and colonies were being discovered and established. The scene was being set for the industrial revolution. Historical perspectives were changing and along with them, new principles in management thought were emerging. Adam Smith was one of the evangelists of management thought during the early stages of the industrial revolution. One of Smith’s new thoughts on management was that the market economy would be se self regulating, that is to say that the market would be ruled by the â€Å"invisible hand†(Wren Bedeian, 2011: 34). His other contribution were his thoughts on the division of labour culminating in the substantial productivity that the use of technology brought to replace human man power. Smith’s principles are fundamental to modern management thought. The industrial revolution brought with it the move from agrarian life to urban living. Production became large scale and the increasing number of factories coming into production demanded more managers who would have to be capable of successfully organising and managing all aspects of these new work places. There is no doubt that historical perspectives have been mportant in bringing about great changes for the better in management thought as evidenced by the evolution of the three phased covered herein. However I would conclude, that despite the advantages of having historical perspectives, society and the management of society does not really learn from these perspectives. I think this is well summarised in Will Durant’s quote in â⠂¬Å"the story of civilization part 1† where he states that â€Å" a nation is born stoic and dies epicurean†(Durant, 1935: 259). There is no clearer example of this than in Ireland today. We have spent centuries struggling against the autocratic management of Irish society both by the catholic church and by British rule. The adversity of these times was eventually replaced by the development of new management structures bringing with them creativity and competiveness. However, as with many developing societies and civilisations, with this development came affluence and opportunism which in turn undermined the integrity of these management structures. Like the Epicureans, poor thought was given to how this would impact tomorrow. So as in Greece and Rome, the lack of long term prudent management and the lack of learning from the historical perspectives on management thought have meant that we have not escaped the Epicurean death blow that has been rendered to Ireland.

Experiment Essay Example for Free

Experiment Essay The primary focus of experiment 4 was to teach a student the basic solubility rules of salts in aqueous solutions. After developing and using a scheme for the qualitative analysis of three cations in an aqueous mixture, a student would use a centrifuge to identify, precipitate, and separate the three ions in the mixture. After becoming familiar with all three cations, the student would use the scheme again to identify at least two of the cations in an unknown solution. In order to begin the separation process, HCl is added to the mixture of cations to form the precipitates and separate the chlorides of Ag+, Pb2+, and HG22+. It is important not to add too much HCl because an excess would form the soluble complexes of AgCl and PbCl2. After the HCl is added, it is centrifuged to form a solid precipitate that contains all three cations and separate them from the supernatant liquid. Finally, another drop of HCl is added to test for completeness of precipitation and centrifuged again if the solution remains incomplete. To separate the lead (II) ion from the sample of solution, it must be separated from the insoluble Hg2Cl2 and AgCL salts by dissolving it in hot water. Once it has been dissolved from the other two cations, it is centrifuged and the liquid is decanted into another test tube. Once in the other test tube, a drop of 6.0 M acetic acid and two drops of 1.0 M K2CrO4 is added to the saved liquid. If the lead (II) cation is present, a yellow precipitate forms and ensures the presence of that cation. When testing my unknown solution, the lead (II) ion was not present in my solution. To further separate the cations, 1.0 mL of 6 M NH3 is added to the saved precipitate. After adding the ammonia, the mixture is centrifuged and the liquid is once again decanted into another test tube. If a gray or black precipitate forms, this proves the presence of Hg22+. The mercury (I) ion was present in my unknown. Finally, separating the silver ions from the sample solution mixture is accomplished in the prior step when the mercury ion is centrifuged. In order to test for the presence of silver ions, 1 mL of 6M HNO3 is added to the solution from the prior step. The silver precipitates in this acidic solution. If a white precipitate appears, silver is present in the solution. The presence of a white precipitate in the solution proves that there were silver ions in my unknown. By following the scheme for the qualitative analysis, it was simple to separate and test for the presence of the target cations. It was critical to correctly label every one of the liquids to ensure the correct reactions. No other difficulties prevented success in the experiment, but performing the experiment several times would further reinforce the outcome of the experiment.

Production of Single Cell Protein

Production of Single Cell Protein ABSTRACT The possibility of using Koji making fermentor for, Arachniotus citrinus and Candida utilis, single cell protein (SCP) production was investigated. The MBP was produced from deoiled rice bran in 300 Kg Koji making fermentor after optimize fermentation conditions in 250 ml flasks by solid state fermentation. The A. citrinus supported maximum values of substrate to water ratio (1:2), 0.05% MgSO4.7H2O, 0.075% CaCl2. 2H2O, 0.25% KH2PO4, C:N (12:1), 1ml molasses (10% solution), 0.6 ml yeast sludge, and 2 ml corn steep liquor while 2ml molasses (10% solution) and 0.25g urea for C. utilis for maximum crude protein productivity. The SCP in the 300 Kg Koji making fermentor contained crude protein, true protein, protein gain, ether extract, ash, crude fiber, and RNA content of 30.13 %, 23.74 %, 2.97 %, 14.71 %, 6.77 %, 3.383% respectively. The dried SCP showed a gross energy value of 3675 Kcal/kg and contained increase the levels of all essential and non-essential amino acids. The results sugg est that A. citrinus and C. utilis cultures can be used for the production of SCP without extensive modification in Koji making fermentor on large scale solid state fermentation. Keywords: Solid state fermentation; Rice bran; single cell protein; Arachniotus citrinus; Candida utilis; Koji making fermentor 1. Introduction A growing alarm for the severe food scarcity for the worlds increasing population has led to the utilization of non-conventional food sources as potential alternatives. Developing countries like Pakistan urgently need to increase livestock and poultry production to enhance meat, milk and egg supplies to meet protein requirement of increasing population. In Pakistan, poultry industry has played a main responsibility in providing animal protein (in the form of eggs and meat) to common man. But feed industry is facing massive shortage of both plant and animal based feed ingredients. These are the main constraints in the development of poultry industry. (Rajoka et al., 2006) One possible alternative is to ferment cheap non-conventional agro-industrial by-products to produce single cell protein (SCP). These residues through fermentation will reduce the pollution as well as provide a potential source of carbon and energy for production of SCP which is an economical, quite comparable to animal protein and potential supplemental protein source. The SCP can replace costly conventional protein sources like soybean meal and fishmeal for feeding poultry, livestock and humans (Singh et al., 1991; Pacheco et al., 1997, Anupama and P. Ravindera., 2000). Solid state fermentation (SSF) refers to the cultivation of microorganisms (mainly fungi) on a solid medium, with a moisture content that ensures growth and metabolism of microorganisms [5]. (Del Bianchi et al., 2001). In SSF, the solid material acts as physical support and source of different nutrients. SSF systems offer several economical and practical advantages such as: higher product concentration, improved product recovery, very simple cultivation equipment, reduced waste water output, lower capital investment and lower plant operation costs (Muniswaran et al., 1994). In SSF of agro-industrial byproducts can be increase their nutritional chemical composition, example, by increasing protein content [6,7]. (Rudravaram et al., 2006; Ravinder et al., 2003), improve the phenolic content and antioxidant potential of fermented foods by using different microorganisms. (Lin et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2008, Lee et al., 2008, Randhir et al., 2004, Lateef et al., 2008; Bhanja et al. (2008 ). The yeast Candida utilis has been frequently used in SCP production because of its ease of isolation, can grew very well at room temperature, ability to utilize a variety of carbon sources such as rice polishings (Rajoka et al., 2006), potato starch waste waters (GÃ ©linas and Barrette, 2007), salad oil manufacturing wastewater (Zheng et al., 2005) and molasses (Nigam and Vogel, 1991), to support high protein yield, its minimal energy requirements and. It has been used for production of several industrial products both for human and animal consumption (Zayed and Mostafa, 1992; Pacheco et al., 1997; Kondo et al., 1997; Otero et al., 1998, Adoki, 2002). It has also been used as a host to produce several chemicals, such as glutathione (Liang et al., 2008), monellin (Kondo et al., 1997) and ethyl acetate (Christen et al., 1999). Mycelia tips of fungi easily penetrate in hard substrate and produce much higher amount of the SCP as compared to submerged fermentation.6 A novel native fungal strain, Arachniotus citrinus is a white rot mesophillic fungus and has been used for the SCP on small scale by using different agro industrial wastes.7 [Shaukat et al., 2006] Previous studies of Arachniotus citrinus also proved that it has effective cellulases, glucoamylase producer in waste bread medium. strong resistance profile of from A. citrinus against proteases was observed. Jabbar et al., 2004; However, there is no literature reported to optimize the culture conditions for A. citrinus and C. utilis in rice bran on large scale by using Koji making fermentor for its reutilization in poultry rations and its biological evaluation in chickens. The main goal is to develop an optimal process on large scale SCP for rice bran with high protein content for poultry and livestock feed industry. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. Rice bran Rice bran was obtained from National Feed Industries, Lahore, Pakistan. It was then sealed in polyethylene bags and stored at 4Â °C for further use. 2.2. Determination of different components in rice bran The proximate analysis of rice bran was conducted to estimate its nutritive composition by following the methods of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC,1994). Triplicate samples of rice bran were analyzed for moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, total ash, nitrogen free extract and cellulose contents. 2.3. Organism Arachniotus citrinus and Candida utilis (a gift from the National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE), Faisalabad, Pakistan) were obtained. Both microorganisms were maintained on potato dextrose agar (PDA) slants at 4Â °C and regular shifting on the PDA slant at the interval of 15 days to keep them viable. Both Arachniotus citrinus and Candida utilis were used to prepare seed culture by transferring a loopful of cells to 200 ml seed culture medium in a 1000 ml Erlenmeyer flask. The medium for Arachniotus citrinus was containing (g/L) rice bran, 20; CaCl2. 2H2O, 0.025; MgSO4.7H2O, 0.025; KH2PO4, 2; Urea 18.9 and grown at 35Â °C with pH 4 while the medium for C. utilis was containing (g L-1) KH2PO4,5.0; (NH4)2SO4, 5.0; CaCl2, 0.13; MgSO4, 0.5; yeast extract, 0.5 and grown at 35Â °C with pH 6 on an orbital shaker (150 rpm for 24 h). 13,14 2.3.1. Effect of moisture content on Arachniotus citrinus SCP production Factors such as moisture content, ionic concentrations of MgSO4.7H2O, CaCl2 .2H2O, KH2PO4 , carbon to nitrogen ration(C:N), molasses (10% solution), yeast sludge, and corn steep liquor for Arachniotus citrinus and molasses (10% solution) and urea for C. utilis affecting the SCP production were standardized by adopting the search technique by varying one factor at a time. The optimized parameter of one experiment was followed for succeeding experiments. In the first experiment, the effect of moisture content (ranging from substrate to water ratios of 1:2, 1:1, 1.5:1, and 2:1) on fungal SCP production, 5 g of rice bran was steamed, inoculated and incubated for 3 days at 35 Â °C for the optimization of water content. All media were adjusted to pH 4.0 with 1 M NaOH or 1 M HCl. A portion of SCP was used for the estimation of crude protein and true protein by following the methods of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1994). The protein gain in the fermented rice bran was calculated according to Equation 1, while, the correction factors of 5.7 for rice bran and of 6.25 for fermented biomass calculations. Protein Gain %=[(NF-NF0) X6.25] X100 (NF0X5.7) Where NF = nitrogen content in fermented rice bran on as such basis, NF0= nitrogen content in unfermented bran. The moisture content favoring maximum fungal SCP production was followed for subsequent experiments. 2.3.2. Effect of ionic concentration on fungal SCP To find out the influence of different ionic concentrations of MgSO4.7H2O, CaCl2 .2H2O and KH2PO4 on A. citrinus SCP production, SSF was carried out for 3 days at 35Â °C with pH 4 at ionic concentrations of MgSO4.7H2O (0, 0.025, 0.05, 0.075 and 0.1%), CaCl2 .2H2O (0, 0.025, 0.05, 0.075 and 0.1%) and KH2PO4 (0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.20 and 0.25 %). The ionic concentrations giving high amount of SCP were taken as an optimum and applied for subsequent evaluation. All other chemicals were of analytical grade. 2.3.3. Effect of molasses The effect of different levels of 10% molasses (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 ml) on fungal SCP was also evaluated by conducting experiments for incubation period of 3 days at 35Â °C with pH 4. The other parameters were kept at their optimum levels. 2.3.4. Effect of yeast sludge Experiments were conducted to find out the effect of various concentrations of yeast sludge on SCP production of A. citrinus by conducting SSF on sterilized 5g rice bran in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask for 3 days at 35Â °C with pH 4. Optimum levels of all the other derived parameters were used. The yeast sludge giving maximum SCP production was determined as an optimum level of yeast sludge. 2.4. Effect of corn steep liquor The effect of various concentrations of corn steep liquor (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 ml) on fungal SCP was also evaluated by conducting experiments at 35Â °C with pH 4 for incubation period of 3 days. The other parameters were kept at their optimum levels. Corn steep liquor was obtained(a gift) from the Rafhan Maize Products (Pvt) Ltd, Faisalabad. 2.5. Effect of various concentrations of molasses and urea on Candida utilis SCP production To demonstrate the influence of various concentrations of 10% molasses (0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 ml), and urea (0, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, and 0.3g) on yeast SCP production, experiments were conducted on 5g sterilized rice bran with C. utilis for 3 days at 35Â °C with the pH of 6.0. The media were adjusted to pH 6.0 with 1 M NaOH or 1 M HCl. 2.6 Large scale single cell protein production by solid state fermentation The optimum conditions determined for SCP production by SSF of A. citrinus and C. utilis (in 250ml Erlenmeyer flask) were extended to ferment 300 kg rice bran in a Koji making fermentor (Fujiwara Techno- Art Co. Ltd, Japan) for the production of SCP(Fig 1). A simple SSF process was followed. Major components of the rotary bed koji maker are a round bed with a perforated bottom plate for up-flow aeration; a set of adjustable speed mixer for plowing up rice bran during SSF; a set of screw for sterilized substrate feed-in and SCP discharge, an air sterilizer and a humidifier. Temperature and humidity sensors are inserted for monitoring and control the temperature and humidity, respectively. pH was monitored frequently by using pH meter. There was some modification (the Koji bed was covered with cheesecloth) for large scale SCP production of A. citrinus and C. utilis in a more hygienic and controllable conditions with mechanized koji making facilities. The SCP product obtained on large s cale was analyzed after drying at 70 Â °C in a hot air oven (AOAC Methods, 1994) and RNA content was analyzed as described previously (Pacheco et al., 1997; Rajoka et al., 2006). 2.6.2. Gross energy It was determined by Parr oxygen method using Parr oxygen bomb calorimeter. The calorific value was calculated from the heat generated by the combustion of known weight of the sample in the presence of 20 atmospheric pressure of oxygen reaction. 3. Results and Discussion Rice bran is a by-product of the rice milling industry and used in animal feed, in fertilizer and by the cosmetics industry. It has a high nutritive value and serves as a valuable feed for cattle, poultry, and pigs. The protein content (10-15 %) of rice bran supply almost the same amount of protein as wheat and oats and even its protein is of considerably better quality than maize. The chemical composition of rice bran used in this experiment for SCP protein contain moisture content 2.50%, crude protein 13.50%, crude fat 3.01%, crude fiber 11.82%, ash content 11.40%, carbon content 40.35% and cellulose 9.70%. Because of the high nutrient contents, it was selected as a potential alternative substrate for the production of SCP by using A. citrinus and C. utilis. The primary objectives of this study were to evaluate the potential of A. citrinus for SSF by using rice bran and production of fungal and yeast C. utilis biomass protein on large scale. Maximum microbial biomass protein from A . citrinus was obtained at optimal temperature 35 Â °C, pH 4 and incubation time 3 d while for C. utilis optimal temperature 35 Â °C, pH 6 and incubation time 3 d were selected (data not shown). 3.1. Effect of moisture content Solid-state fermentation is a well adopted method for cultivating fungi on agro-industrial wastes. It offers benefits for production of numerous enzymes and various chemicals. Solid-state fermentation has lower energy requirements, smaller effluent volumes, higher productivity, simple and easy operation of solid state fermentors. SSF is significantly affected by different factors such as selection of a proper strain, substrate and other processing parameters for fermentation such as moisture content, temperature, pH, incubation period, ionic concentrations of different anions and cations, different sources of carbon and nitrogen etc. In this study, different levels of moisture content were used to determine the optimum level of water to obtain maximum yield of fungal A. citrinus SCP. The results of our study indicated that the maximum level of SCP production (in terms of crude protein %) was observed at substrate to water ratio of 1:2 by using fungal A. citrinus in SSF. A significant decrease (p< 0.05) in SCP production was observed at 1:1(2.24%), 1.5:1(16.39%) and 2:1(23.57%) as compared to 1:1. A similar trend was observed in true protein% and protein gain%. The maximum level of true protein% was observed at 1:2 while it was decreased at 1:1(1.15%), 1.5:1(15.78%) and 2:1(23.19%) as compared to 1:1. The highest protein gain % was observed at 1:2 while it was decreased at 1:1(5.08%), 1.5:1(37.27%) and 2:1(53.66%) as compared to 1:1. It was already reported that at 6% moisture (w/v) corn stover had increased the microbial biomass protein production by sequential culture fermentation with Arachniotus sp., at pH 4, 35 Â °C for 72 h and then followed by C. utilis fermentation at pH 6, 35 Â °C for 72 h (Ahmad et al., 2010). Zambare., (2010) found that Aspergillus oryzae had increased the glucoamylase enzyme production at 100% (v/w) initial moisture by using different agro-industrial wastes of SSF. Sharma and Satyanarayana., 2012 found the highest production of a pectinase enzyme of Bacillus pumilus dcsr1 at moisture ratio of 1 : 2.5 by using different agro-residues in SSF. Generally low moisture content has been reported for maximum fungal growth, more utilization of substrate and significant advantage is lowering the risk of bacterial species contamination. This variation in moisture content might be due to differences in fermenting fungal specie, and substrate. The reduction in SCP production at 1:1 of moisture content might be due to non-availability of nutrients due to lower moisture content and of lower water activity that affected the microbial activities because of limitation in the nutrient solubilization, lower degree of substrate swelling and decrease in diffusion of gas to the cell during fermentation (Nagadi and Correria, 1992; Ellaiah et al., 2004). Even higher concentrations of moisture also affected the microbial enzymes metabolic activities as a result of substrate stickiness, less porous nature of substrate and very limited oxygen transfer during the process of SSF in fermentor (Kumar et al., 2003; Pandey et al., 2000). Effect of different ionic concentrations of MgSO4.7H2O, CaCl2 .2H2O, and KH2PO4 on SCP production All the required metallic elements Mg, Ca and K can be supplied in the form of the cations of inorganic salts and they are normally required in relatively large amounts. Significant variation (p< 0.05) of SCP production was observed at different concentrations of MgSO4.7H2O. Maximum production was observed at 0.05%MgSO4.7H2O. Beyond 0.05%MgSO4.7H2O, the production of SCP was significantly lower. Concentrations above 0.05%MgSO4.7H2O also reduce the biomass production indicating the optimum level of MgSO4.7H2O for SCP production for A. citrinus was 0.05%. A significant difference (p< 0.05) in SCP production (on crude protein% basis) was observed at control 0.0% (1.43%), 0.025% (0.24%) 0.075% (4.46%) and 0.10% (5.28%) as compared to 0.05% MgSO4.7H2O. When we compared supplementation of different levels of MgSO4.7H2O for SCP production, we found that there were increased in production of SCP at 0.025% (1.20%) and 0.05% (1.45%) while there were decreased at 0.075% (3.07%) and 0.10% (3.91%) as compared to control 0.0% MgSO4.7H2O. The maximum levels of true protein% were observed at 0.025% and 0.05%. The average value of TP% was 17.08 Â ± 0.06. When we compared with the highest value of TP% with different levels of MgSO4.7H2O, it was found that the TP% was lower at 0.0% (1.87%) while it was decreased at 0.05% (0.23%), 0.075% (4.85%) and 0.1% (9.76%) of MgSO4.7H2O. When we compared the effect of different levels of MgSO4.7H2O on true protein%, we found that there were increased in TP% at 0.025% (1.37%) and 0.05% (1.66%) while there were decreased at 0.075% (3.03%) and 0.10% (8.04%) as compared to control 0.0% MgSO4.7H2O. The highest protein gain% was observed at 0.05% MgSO4.7H2O 88.46 Â ± 0.11 while it was lower at 0.0% (3.91%), 0.025% (0.55%) and decreased at 0.075% (10.0%) and 0.10% (21.02%) as compared to 0.05% MgSO4.7H2O. When we compared the influence of different inclusion levels of MgSO4.7H2O on protein gain%, we found that there were increased in PG% at 0.025% (2.69%) and 0.05% (3.26%) while there were decreased at 0.075% (7.06%) and 0.10% (18.44%) as compared to control 0.0% MgSO4.7H2O. Production of A. citrinus biomass protein was greatly influenced by different levels of CaCl2.2H2O. A significant increase in SCP production was observed in SSF by increasing the initial levels of CaCl2.2H2O from 0.025% to 0.075%. Maximum production of SCP was observed at 0.075% CaCl2.2H2O (24.66% Â ± 0.00). However, at 0.10% CaCl2.2H2O SCP production was decreased significantly (Table. 3). Significant variation (p< 0.05) in SCP production (on crude protein% basis) was observed at control 0.0% (1.01%), 0.025% (0.64%) 0.05% (0.28%) and 0.1% (1.45%) as compared to 0.075% CaCl2.2H2O. When we compared supplementation of different levels of CaCl2.2H2O for SCP production, we found that there were increased in production of SCP at 0.025% (0.36%), 0.05% (0.73%) and 0.075% (1.02%) while there was decreased at 0.10% (0.45%) as compared to control 0.0% CaCl2.2H2O. The maximum levels of true protein% were observed at 0.05% and 0.075% (average value 17.26 Â ± 0.01). When we compared the highest value of TP% with other levels of CaCl2.2H2O, it was found that the TP% was lower at 0.0% (1.01%), 0.025% (0.64%) and 0.05% (0.28%) while it was decreased at 0.01% (1.45%) of CaCl2.2H2O. However, when we compared the effect of different levels of CaCl2.2H2O on true protein%, we found that there were increased in TP% at 0.025% (0.35%), 0.05% (0.93%) and 0.075% (1.22%) while there was decreased at 0.10% (0.05%) as compared to control 0.0% CaCl2.2H2O. The highest protein gain% was observed at 0.075% (90.69% Â ± 0.05) CaCl2.2H2O while it was lower at 0.0% (2.28%), 0.025% (1.43%) and 0.05% (0.61%) and decreased at 0.10% (3.21%) as compared to 0.075% CaCl2.2H2O. When we compared the influence of different inclusion levels of CaCl2.2H2O on protein gain%, we found that there were increased in PG% at 0.025% (0.86%), 0.05% (1.70%) and 0.075% (2.33%) while there was decreased at 0.10% (0.95%) as compared to control 0.0% CaCl2.2H2O. The maximum level of fungal SCP production was observed at 0.25% KH2PO4 level. A significant increase (p< 0.05) was observed in SCP production from 0.05-0.25% KH2PO4 after SSF of rice bran with A. citrinus. Significant variations (p< 0.05) in the SCP production was observed at 0.0% (15.29%), 0.05% (14.30%), 0.10% (11.55%), 0.15% (7.35%) and 0.20% (2.68%) as compared to maximum increase production of SSP at 0.25% KH2PO4. When we compared supplementation of different levels of KH2PO4 for SCP production, we found that there were increased in production of SCP at 0.05% (1.17%), 0.10% (4.42%), 0.15% (9.37%), 0.20% (14.89%) and 0.25% (18.06%) as compared to control 0.0% KH2PO4. A similar trend was observed in true protein% and protein gain%. The maximum level of true protein% was observed at 0.25% KH2PO4 (20.39% Â ± 0.02). The true protein% of different levels of KH2PO4 were observed at 0.0% (15.49%), 0.05% (14.46%), 0.10% (11.47%), 0.15% (7.55%) and 0.20% (2.79%) as compared to 0.25%. However, when we compared the effect of different levels of KH2PO4 on true protein%, we found that there were increased in TP% at 0.05% (1.21%), 0.10% (4.75%), 0.15% (9.40%), 0.20% (15.03%) and 0.25% (18.34%) as compared to control 0.0% KH2PO4. The highest protein gain% was observed at 0.25% (126.69% Â ± 0.17). The protein gain% of different levels of KH2PO4 were observed at 0.0% (28.57%), 0.05% (26.71%), 0.10% (21.58%), 0.15% (13.75%) and 0.20% (5.00%) as compared to 0.25% KH2PO4. When we compared the influence of different inclusion levels of KH2PO4 on protein gain%, we found that there were increased in PG% at 0.05% (2.60%), 0.10% (9.79%), 0.15% (20.74%), 0.20% (32.99%) and 0.25% (40.00%) as compared to control 0.0% KH2PO4. These finding agree with the studies of Baig et al (2002); Xu and Yun (2003); Xiao et al (2004), Athar et al., 2009 and Ahmad et al., 2010. At these concentrations of 0.05% MgSO4.7H2O, 0.075% CaCl2.2H2O, and 0.25%KH2PO4 maximum SCP was produced. It has been reported that mineral ions play a pivotal role in fungal growth and in their secondary metabolite formations. Chardonnet et al.(1999) found that external Ca2+ can play an indirect role in fungal growth by altering internal Ca2+, which controls the cytoplasmic Ca2+ gradient, and the activity of fungal enzymes involved in cell wall expansion. The direct effect of Ca2+ on the fungal cell wall may also be a significant factor in cell membrane permeability interactions. In contrast, Papagianni (2004) found that increased concentrations of Ca2+ inhibit the synthesis of fungal biopolymers might be due to effect on enzymes such as b-glucan synthesis. For higher CaCl2.2H2O concentrations, the calcium ion content of the cell wall increased, resulting in reduced protein and neutral sugar contents. Mg2+ is also an essential metal ion to all fungi. It act as a cofactor in enzymatic reactions, stabilizes the plasma membrane, and its uptake is ATP dependent. Potassium ion is very import ant for the regulation of osmotic strength and intracellular pH while phosphorus plays an important role in all phases of cellular metabolism (Conn and strumpf,1976; Verchtert, 1990). PO4-3 (phosphate), in the form of K- salt, was added because K+ is required for the absorption of phosphate. On the other hand, when Na2HPO4 and (NH4)2HPO4 were added to bacterial, yeast and fungal cultures, poor growth rates and higher resting oxygen consumption were observed as compared to K fed microbes(Conway and Moore,1954). This could be probably due to the death of fermenting microorganisms caused by reverse osmosis in the presence of higher concentrations of ions. A combination of Ca2+ Mg2+ and K+ ions gave rise to enhanced mycelia growth of A. citrinus in SSF of rice bran. Effect of carbon: nitrogen ratio on SCP production by fermentation with A. citrinus The Carbon to Nitrogen (C/N) ratio is important in a biological process. Microorganisms require a proper nitrogen supplement for metabolism during fermentation. It is a major nutrient for fungal growth. High concentrations of nitrogen have increasing the fungal growth and biomass yield. It is necessary to maintain proper composition of the growth media for efficient fermentation process so that the C:N ratio remains within desired range. Microorganisms generally utilize carbon 25-30 times faster than nitrogen during anaerobic digestion. The C: N ratio of 12:1 produced maximum SCP production (29.91 Â ± 0.02) by fermentation with A. citrinus (Table. 5). A significant variation (p< 0.05) in the CP% production was observed. We found that there were decrease in the production of CP% when we supplied different C:N ratios of 15:1 (14.91%), 17:1 (0.70%), 19:1 (8.72%), 21:1 (10.76%) and 23:1 (15.84%) as compared to C: N of 12:1. The maximum level of TP% was observed at C: N of 12:1 (29.94% Â ± 0.04). However, when we compared the effect of different ratios of C:N on TP%, we found that there were decreased in TP% at 15:1 (40.40%), 17:1 (28.72%), 19:1 (36.13%), 21:1 (37.54%) and 23:1 (41.11%) as compared to C: N of 12:1. The highest PG% was observed at C: N of 12:1 (133.33% Â ± 0.22). When we compared the influence of different ratios of C:N on PG%, we found that there were decreased in PG% at 15:1 (27.16%), 17:1 (1.29%), 19:1 (15.89%), 21:1 (19.63%) and 23:1 (28.86%) as compared to control C: N of 12:1. in agreement with Kiani (1989), Gutierrez et al (2004) and Zheng et al (2005) Rajoka et al., 2004, Athar et al., 2009; Ali et al., 2010 . This could be due to the fact that when C:N was 12:1, maximum production of biomass protein was produced. If the ratio was increased above this level, excess urea was produced which was responsible for the increase in pH and ultimately reduced the production of single cell protein. Replacement of one nitrogen source for another in the medium causes a change in protein synthesis as well as product formation. To explore the influence of nitrogen sources on production of crude protein and RNA, were compared to, urea, and corn steep liquor (which are cheap nitrogen sources) when added to rice polishings medium. The results (Table 1) show that these nitrogen compounds influenced the production of protein productivity and RNA content to varying degrees. Generally, the results confirmed that corn steep liquor, a low-cost by-product of the starch industry, supported the maximum kinetic parameters of crude protein compared to those of other nitrogen compounds. The organism produced lower SCP from sodium nitrate and ammonium nitrate and was attributed to low nitrate reductase activity in the organism. However, the maximum EPS production was achieved when yeast extract was employed as nitro-gen source An appropriate amount of C: N ratio is the key to get maximum yield of SCP.19,20 Urea is a low cost fertilizer and supported maximum SCP production which was in agreement with previous studies.21,22 Effect of supplementation with molasses (10% solution) on SCP production by fermentation with A. citrinus Fermentation was carried out at different concentration of cane molasses (10% solution) to standardize the optimum level of molasses. High levels of SCP formed at 1ml of molasses (10% solution). Further addition of molasses results in decreased SCP production (table. 5). Significant variations (p< 0.05) in the SCP production were observed at 0.0 ml (3.28%), 2 ml (2.78%), 3 ml (7.99%), 4 ml (19.34%), 5 ml (34.20%) and 6 ml (53.90%) as compared to the highest production of SCP at 1 ml of molasses (10% solution). However, when we compared supplementation of different levels of molasses (10% solution) for SCP production, we found that there were increased in production of SCP at 1 ml (3.39%) and 2 ml (0.59%) levels. However, further addition of molasses (10% solution) at 3 ml (4.87%), 4 ml (16.60%), 5 ml (31.97%) and 6 ml (52.33%) decreased the SCP production when we compared these levels with control 0.0 ml molasses (10% solution). A similar trend was observed in true protein% and protein gain%. The maximum level of true protein% was observed at 1 ml of 10% molasses (22.26% Â ± 0.15). The true protein% of different levels of 10% molasses were observed at 0.0 ml (3.68%), 2 ml (3.14%), 3 ml (8.04%), 4 ml (19.72%), 5 ml (34.54%) and 6 ml (54.08%) as compared to the highest production of SCP at 1 ml of molasses (10% solution). However, when we compared supplementation of different levels of molasses (10% solution) for SCP production, we found that there were increased in production of SCP at 1 ml (3.82%) and 2 ml (0.55%) levels. However, further addition of molasses (10% solution) at 3 ml (4.80%), 4 ml (16.65%), 5 ml (32.04%) and 6 ml (52.33%) decreased the SCP production when we compared these levels with control 0.0 ml molasses (10% solution). The highest protein gain% was observed at 1 ml of 10% molasses (147.32% Â ± 0.86). The PG% of different levels of 10% molasses were observed at 0.0 ml (5.73%), 2 ml (4.87%), 3 ml (13.94%), 4 ml (33.77%), 5 ml (59.66%) and 6 ml (94.01%) as compared to the highest production of SCP at 1 ml of molasses (10% solution). However, when we compared supplementation of different levels of molasses (10% solution) for SCP production, we found that there were increased in production of SCP at 1 ml (6.08%) and 2 ml (0.93%) levels. However, further addition of molasses (10% solution) at 3 ml (8.71%), 4 ml (29.74%), 5 ml (57.2%) and 6 ml (93.65%) decreased the SCP production when we compared these levels with control 0.0 ml molasses (10% solution). Flasks experiments using molasses and sucrose for enzyme production showed a pH increase during the fermentation. High pH affects the enzyme stability. Consumption of sucrose or glucose as carbon source is not cost-effective in the production of microbial biomass protein. Low cost substrates such as cane molasses can be used for the production of microbial biomass protein for animal feed supplements.23,24 In addition, molasses is widely available from the sugar industry and consist of water, sucrose (47-50%, w/w) which is the disaccharide most easily exploited by yeast cells. It also contain 0.5-1% nitrogen, proteins, vitamins, amino acids, organic acids and heavy metals.25 Therefore, it is a very attractive carbon source for SCP production economically. In this study, molasses were added to the fermentation medium to enhance the SCP production. Among different concentrations of molasses, 1 and 2 ml molasses gave higher SCP production by fermentation with Arachniotus sp. and C. utili s, respectively (Fig. 6 and Fig. 7). The results of our experiment were agreed with the previous studies.17, 26 The present results showed the potential of Arachniotus sp. and C. utilis to grow on cheap substrates like rice bran along with molasses for SCP production. Effect of Yeast Sludge Significant variation (p< 0.05) of SCP production was observed at different yeast sludge levels. Maximum production was observed at 0.6 ml (Table. 2). Beyond 0.6 ml, the production was significantly reduced. Yeast sludge above 0.6 ml also reduces the SCP production indicating the optimum level of yeast sludge for biomass production for A. citrinus was 0.6 ml. Significant variations (p< 0.05) in the SCP production were observed at 0.0 ml (5.22%), 0.2 ml (3.55%), 0.4 ml (1.79%), 0.8 ml (8.09%), 1.0 ml (15.32%) and 1.2 ml (22.04%) as compared to the highest production of SCP at 0.6 ml of YS. Ho